ENG 1C 02- British Literature 19th Century. University of Calicut

English Grammar and Usage_ University of Calicut

Third semester MA Degree Examination. ENG3C 10_ Literary Criticism and Theory _ Part 2University of Calicut

Third semester MA Degree Examination. 

ENG3C 10_ Literary Criticism and Theory _ Part 2

University of Calicut 

Exercise : Subject and Verb Agreement Exercise

 

Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.

1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.

2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.

3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.

4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.

5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.

6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.

7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.

8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.

9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.

10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.

11. Either answer (is, are) acceptable.

12. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.

13. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen.

14. (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?

15. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics (is, are) Andrea's favorite subject.

16. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days.

17. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?

18. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.

19. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is, are) only one left!

20. The committee (debates, debate) these questions carefully.

21. The committee members (leads, lead) very different lives in private.

22. The Prime Minister, together with his wife, (greets, greet) the press cordially.

23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, (is, are) in this case.

 Answer Key

1. Annie and her brothers are at school.

2. Either my mother or my father is coming to the meeting.

3. The dog or the cats are outside.

4. Either my shoes or your coat is always on the floor.

5. George and Tamara don't want to see that movie.

6. Benito doesn't know the answer.

7. One of my sisters is going on a trip to France.

8. The man with all the birds lives on my street.

9. The movie, including all the previews, takes about two hours to watch.

10. The players, as well as the captain, want to win.

11. Either answer is acceptable.

12. Every one of those books is fiction.

13. Nobody knows the trouble I've seen.

14. Is the news on at five or six?

15. Mathematics is John's favorite subject, while Civics is Andrea's favorite subject.

16. Eight dollars is the price of a movie these days.

17. Are the tweezers in this drawer?

18. Your pants are at the cleaner's.

19. There were fifteen candies in that bag. Now there is only one left!

20. The committee debates these questions carefully.

21. The committee members lead very different lives in private.

22. The Prime Minister, together with his wife, greets the press cordially.

23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, are in this case.

Literary Criticism part- 2 lll Semester MA University of Calicut

Dhavni Theory Kujhunni Raja

The Dhvani Theory found it's first systematic expression in Ānandvardhan's 'Dhvanyāloka'. His theory dominated Indian Poetics from the 9th to 12th century A.D.

Many authors such a Bharata Mammatta, Bhāmaha, Dande, considered various aspects such as Rasa, Alamkara, Riti, Guna-dosha  as the important part of the poem. But Ānandvardhan is one step ahead. He said the above-mentioned aspects were the body of the poetry. In short, they were part of the poetry. Whereas 'Dhvani' is the soul of poetry. Just like the human body is not alive with soul, poetry is also lame without Dhvani.

Anandavardana uses the term dhvani for his theory of poetic suggestion. In his work Dhvanyaloka, Anandavardana establishes his theory that suggestion is the soul of poetry. He says the beautiful ideas in poetry are of two kinds. They are Literal  (vacya) and Implied  

( Pratyamana). The literal sense or expressive sense is invariably an idea or a figure of speech. But the suggested sense may be of three kinds: an idea, figure of speech, or an emotion. This suggested sense is not understood by those who merely know grammar and lexicon; it is understood only by men of taste who know the essence of poetry. In fact it is the soul of poetry. So if the suggested sense  subordinate to the expressed sense, there will be no dhvani. Poetry which does not contain any suggested sense cannot be considered as good poetry.

The doctrine of dhavni is only an extention of rasa theory propounded by the ancient sage Bharata. According to which the main object of a dramatic work is to rouse a rasa or aesthetic emotion in audience. Anandavardhana extended this theory to poetry also. 

Abinavagupta follows Anandhavardana and stated that rasa is realized through suggestion. 

The emotion is not something which can be expressed directly by the words, it can only be suggested.

Then he suggested three different psychological stages in the realization of rasa in literature. The first stage taking the formal or intellectual elements of the poem. The second stage consists of idealization of things in poetry and drama by the power of imagination in the reader or spectator. The third stage is an inexpressible affective

( emotional) condition of the reader or spectator. Thus the formal or intellectual, imaginative and emotional elements of poem blend in to one predominant feeling that evokes rasa.

Criticism against the Dhvani Theory

The theory of dhavni has passed through many criticism before it was universally accepted. The Various schools of philosophy like the Nyaya and the Mimamsa do not recognize the suggestive power of words.

In his work Dhvanyaloka Anandavardhana himself refers to many of the views against the doctrine of dhavni. Some says that dhavni doesn't exist, some  says that it included in Lakshana.some others considering dhvani to be something

beyond the province of words, which is known only to the men of literary taste. 

Here have the main argument against dhavni. 

* Dhvani and Anumana

The Naiyayikas reject the suggestive power of words. Mahima bhatta in his vyaktiviveka says that dhavni is included in Anumana or inference. Which explicit that the implied sense in literature is always conveyed by the expressed sense through the process of inference.

Anandavardhana himself counters this criticism by pointing example of analogy. He says the the relation between the expressed sense and the implied sense is something similar to that between a pot and  light. Light reveals the pot, even though there is no invariable relation between two. Like this, inference is not provide dhavani.

In Nyayamanjari, Jayanthabhatta dismisses the importance of dhavni and said that it is unworthied of serious consideration by scholars.

* Dhavani and Arthapatti

The view that dhavni is included in arthapatti. It is a kind of immediate inference based on the absence of middle terms and or the absence of major terms.

Jesperson in his 'The Philosophy of Grammar' says that '' In all speech activity there are three things to be distinguised: expression, suppression, and impression. Expression is what the speaker gives, suppression is what he does not give and impression is what the hearer receives. So here he proves that suggestion is impression by suppression.

*Dhvani and Laksana

Some of the Alamkarika's like Mukulabhatta tried to include vyanjana or the suggestive power under lakshana itself. He defines  lakshsna in such a way that all instances where the expressed sense indicates other ideas are included in it. So dhavni is actually falls under the doctrine of lakshsna itself. 

Anandavardhana defies this anti- dhavni Theory and says that lakshana and dhavni are differ from each other based on their nature and subject matter. Lakshana operates when there is an inconsistency in the primary sense. It actually talks about the secondary metaphorical sense after canceling its primary sense. But in suggestion primary sense need not be discarded. 

* Dhavni and Abidha

The Mimasaka- s of the Prabhakara school who follow the anvitabhidana theory of verbal comprehension consider dhavni included in abidha. 

They consider that in a sentence a word conveys not only its own individual meaning, but also relation to other words in the sentence. 

Ananthavardhana and his followers attack this view from the standpoint of the Abhihitanvaya theory. The suggested sense cannot be conveyed by the power of abhidha. 

The primary sense is directly related to the word but the suggested sense is known only indirectly through the expressed sense. 

*Dhavni and Tatparyavrtti

Some of the Alamkarika's like Dhanika and Dhanamjaya include dhvani under tatparyavrtti, a function of the sentence postulated to explain the verbal comprehension arising from a sentence. 

* Dhavni and Vakrothi

In the Vakrothijivita, Kuntala denied the independent existence of dhavni and included it under vakrokti or a 'striking mode of speech'

These are the major criticism faced by dhvani theory.

At last we can say that, rasq- dhavni kavya considered to be beyond excellence Poetry. This is a best theory given by Anandavardhana in literature. Though so many criticism roused against this theory, the final outcome was the universal acceptance of dhavni Theory.

" The emotion cannot be expressed directly by words, but it can be suggestive"